June 4, 2008
Introduction
Today, “perceptions of power range from viewing it as the ultimate evil, to something neutral or something to be positively appreciated.” There are many definitions of power in the world today, based upon various perspectives and worldviews; however, Ehrensperger identifies four.
4 Types of Power
(1) Power-Over (Max Webber): Power of Strategy and Domination.
(2) Power-To (Hannah Arendt): Communicative Power or Collective Action.
(3) Transformative-Power (Wartenburg): Example of Parenting.
(4) Power-With (Amy Allen-Feminist): Collective, Agreed Act.
While there are obvious power structures that exist in community and relationship, these powers are usually distorted by the fall and the entrance of sin into humanity. Some may detest this fact, however, this paper is primarily concerned with power and authority in the New Testament; therefore, power and authority are viewed in light of the biblical witness, which includes the existence of the fall and the reality of sin within the realm of humanity. Primarily, in human history, there is a tendency to use Power-Over, which uses power to cause the oppression and domination of others under a person, structure, institution, or even evil spiritual beings. Certainly one can see this reality today in our present society, yet the culture of the first-century, in which the New Testament was lived and written, struggled against this kind of domination that demanded blind obedience, oppressed its citizens, and dominated those underneath.
Two Worlds of Dominant-Power in the New Testament
(1) Jewish – Ironically, One of the most groups who caused oppression in the New Testament is also the group most connected to the reality of hope that God offered humanity. The Jewish people were the bearers of light, bringers of the law, who sought purity and holiness above all else. After the fall of both Judah and Israel, the Jewish people were in exile for some four-hundred years, and in the gospels, they find themselves free to practice their faith under the thumb of the Roman government. However, the Jews, especially religious officials, scribes, priests, Sadducee's, and Pharisees were so concerned with following the law in all its ritualistic glory, that they forgot the heart of the law. In the gospels, the Jews breed oppression not just among their own people to remain faithful to the law, but they created an oppression and segregation of God’s kingdom and purpose between themselves and the Gentiles. Along with this oppression to those outside of Judaism, was the relationship of Jews with the Samaritans, an unclean people-group that consisted of a mixed race of Israelites and Samarians that came into being after the fall and exile.
(2) Rome – The Romans Empire was the oppressor of, not just the Jewish people, but of the known world during the time of the first-century. Their dominance and power over civilization still has not found its counterpart, being one of the only empires to last almost one-thousand years from its rise to its fall. While Rome gave free reign for the Jewish people and the gentiles to practice their religion and live in some respective peace, they demanded strict obedience to specific laws that all citizens and occupants must obey. The questions of early Jews and Jewish-Christians were how far to bow to such powers of this world. To answer such questions Paul writes:
Everyone must submit himself to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. Consequently, he who rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and he will commend you. For he is God's servant to do you good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword for nothing. He is God's servant, an agent of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience. This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing. Give everyone what you owe him: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor. (Emphasis mine)
Jesus also taught in Matthew 22:15-22 for his hearers to pay taxes to Rome, giving to God and Rome what each deserves. “Here, Paul commands submission to authority, for all power is from God. To resist authority is to resist God, for authority is god’s minister for good.” To those in the first-century, Paul seems to be demanding a strict compliance with a state that had some very wicked practices during its time.
The key may perhaps lie in the idea of power. In the Old Testament all power is from God; but power as such is morally neutral. No nation and no person can have any power which is not committed to it by God; but the exercise of the power is not thereby authenticated.
The authentication of power is an important fact, for it means that God may put people in positions of power; however, this does not condone every moral, ethical, or social decision made by such authorities, for humanity is fallen and continually will rebel against the will and authority of God.
Oppressive-Power Over Three Social Worlds
(1) Slavery/Racism – In our time, Christians have seen the integration of humanity and the slow-moving decay of slavery in America. While humanity still has versions of slavery, for the most part it is now viewed with majority distaste for its lack of freedom and acceptance of oppression that seeks power and greed over compassion and equality. The irony in scripture is that while scripture claims liberation, Paul seems to seek order rather than liberation in some instances.
Slaves, obey your earthly masters with respect and fear, and with sincerity of heart, just as you would obey Christ. Obey them not only to win their favor when their eye is on you, but like slaves of Christ, doing the will of God from your heart. Serve wholeheartedly, as if you were serving the Lord, not men, because you know that the Lord will reward everyone for whatever good he does, whether he is slave or free. And masters, treat your slaves in the same way. Do not threaten them, since you know that he who is both their Master and yours is in heaven, and there is no favoritism with him.
(2) Women – In the New Testament, there seems to be a dichotomy between the example of Jesus (specified later) and the exhortation of Paul toward the issue of women’s role in society. Jesus’ examples seem to be equality while Paul’s letters seem to stress the orderly-submission of women under that of men.
I also want women to dress modestly, with decency and propriety, not with braided hair or gold or pearls or expensive clothes, but with good deeds, appropriate for women who profess to worship God. A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner. But women will be saved through childbearing—if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety.(Emphasis mine)
One special aspect of this passage to note is that Paul states, “I do not permit” and “I desire” rather than claiming this is the instruction of Jesus or of God. Why would Paul contradict the example of Jesus? There seems to have been a situation in worship in which women were rich, the norm of the day was a patriarchal-hierarchy, and there was some form of disorder and chaos during worship. “This prohibition, although surely directed to all the women, is related to or rather is motivated or provoked by certain wealthy women who are asked not to be ostentatious in their dress.” There are also various interpretations that suggest during the time Paul was writing his letters, there were various pagan cults in which women were leaders and some of these leaders, found themselves becoming Christians or infiltrating thee churches. These women were spreading false teachings and confusing the gospel message with their pagan lifestyles; therefore, Paul told these women to be silent for the local community of believers. “Yet frequently the experience of many women and men in today’s churches is that their institutions reflect the instructions of 1 Timothy more than they reflect other New Testament communities.”
(3) The Poor – Those people without money, who are suffering, dying, hurt, and unable to gain wealth, are among the final group that finds itself oppressed. The poor are spoken of numerous times in the gospels, specifically in the gospel of Luke. In the Book of Acts, Luke continues this theme of concern for the poor, stating that the early church was involved in helping to alleviate the suffering of the poor.
They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and to the fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer. Everyone was filled with awe, and many wonders and miraculous signs were done by the apostles. All the believers were together and had everything in common. Selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need. Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts, praising God and enjoying the favor of all the people. And the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.
Those who seek to oppress the people through slavery, sex, or financial status dominate with a power that is distorted and does not stem from the authority of God merely because these people may exist in some institution or position that places them over such groups. Scripture promotes a drastically different view on power, one that seeks to have a balance and equality between all humanity, not just a high status for some and oppressive status for others.
The Spiritual World of Oppressive Power
Put on the full armor of God so that you can take your stand against the devil's schemes. For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms. Therefore put on the full armor of God, so that when the day of evil comes, you may be able to stand your ground, and after you have done everything, to stand. (Ephesians 6, Emphasis mine)
While there is evidence to the reality of evil forces, of demons and of a satanic figure, much has been done traditionally to conclude that most evil and suffering stems from these spiritually oppressive powers. While scripture maintains a form of spiritual reality and warfare, the evidence in scripture suggest that most sin, especially oppressive and dominant forms of power, stem from humans and their corrupt institutions. While Christians should certainly be aware that these evil forces do exist, there needs to be at least a balance of the oppression that comes form these demonic forces with the evil that finds itself in the power wielded by humanity itself. In addition, both supernatural and human forces of evil are all condemned forms of power because they are distortions of the good; they rebel against God, denying the one true authority that expresses itself from God alone. Therefore, one must admit that spiritual evil does exist and have some bearing on life; however, the overall amount of influence can be overdone, transferring responsibility from humans to the demonic. Christ does exorcise demons but he also teaches against those humans who use power to control and oppress others.
God’s Authority through Power-Sharing
McKenzie states, “There is only one power in the universe and that is the power of God. This is a power to judge and to save.” All authority comes from, and is found within, the triune God, specifically through God the Father. As states previously, God does delegate and share his power with humanity, using governments and structures to keep the world running in various cultures and languages. One may question God’s method of power-sharing because there is so much abuse of this power, with this power many distort the intentions of God, rebel against his authority, and using positions to oppress others. However, God is primarily a God of both relationship and cooperation, valuing the importance of free will and uniqueness of each individual who exists. Without this power-sharing, God would also become a dominating and oppressing divine being, whose will is not persuasive but all-dominating, not loving but all-demanding, not relational but authoritarian. Within the first few chapters of Genesis, this power-sharing is seen when God tells Adam and Eve not to partake of the fruit but then when they disobey, God provides clothing for their naked, ashamed bodies. In the story of Cain and Abel, God tried to persuade Cain to control his anger, however, when Cain murders his brother God curses and protects Cain. In the flood story, God destroys the world with water but works with and through Noah to save a remnant of people. Later, God chooses the Hebrew people and works through Moses and Aaron to save them from Egypt. Then God continues this power-sharing through the judges, kings, and through various prophets who proclaim his word.
Finally, in God’s most dramatic and greatest revelation of himself to humanity, God chooses to limit and share power with humanity itself. God does this by limiting himself and becoming human, for in the incarnation of Jesus the word was made flesh and dwelt among humanity as both man and God. God does not just limit himself in the incarnation of Jesus but in some sense, God also expresses his power-sharing and authority through Jesus who now shows God in relationship, not only with humanity, but also within the community of the Triune God.
Jesus Authority through Servant-Power
Then Jesus came to them and said, "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.
(1) When did Christ have power? - Was it after the cross in the resurrection or at the incarnation? This question has puzzled many believers since Christ spoke these words of authority. Many may argue that the power of Christ was at his conception and incarnation, others at his baptism; still others may state that Christ had power and authority only after his death and in his resurrection. An important fact to remember is that the authority of God and power found within the trinity is something drastically different in form and definition then as one normally may think. Christ’s power as the incarnation was that he was the living word of God, as the word of God; Jesus had the authority and power of God to do many miraculous things during his lifetime. However, as his death and with his resurrection, Jesus gained a more perfected form of power and authority, not only being the living word of God but also as the mediator between God and humankind. Therefore, Jesus’ power was not just in his beginning or in his resurrection, but in both, because in all aspects of his life Jesus carried and submitted to the authority of God.
(2) In Teaching - “This is where [Jesus] was so utterly different from the Jewish teachers of the law, the scribes, and the Pharisees. They did not speak with God’s authoritative voice; they were constantly quoting this, that and the other authority.” In his Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5-7, Jesus is constantly saying, “You have heard it said… but I say unto you.” Here, Jesus is making himself a final authority, the final commenter on the Old Testament laws, bringing about the heart of the law and not merely the rule of the law, which brought so much oppression and burden onto the Jewish people. Jesus did not quote the authority on the law; Jesus was the authority of the law.
(3) Through Miracles/ Exorcising the Demonic/The Forgiveness of Sins – In his mission of compassion and mercy, Jesus through his healing to hearers, both physically and spiritually, stopped the oppression of suffering to those who were willing. When Jesus healed, he many times would tell the one healed that their faith had healed them and their sins were forgiven. This announcement stunned the Jewish hearers, for they knew that only God could forgive sins. Who was this Jesus that he forgave sins? Who gave him the authority to forgive sins? Hoogland quoting Aquinas states,
Almightiness is displayed to the highest extent by sparing and saving people and by being merciful, freely forgiving them of their sons. And this is what is found in Christ did during his earthly life, even on the cross (LK 23,43).
(4) In Service - “[Jesus] taught with the authority of God himself and he spoke as one who lived out what he was teaching.”
“The authority of Jesus came through his identification with the people, teaching them the way and the will and the word of God by submitting to it himself and coming alongside them in discovering what this submission meant in daily life.”Jesus was not just one with authority who wielded power to oppress; Jesus exemplified himself as one who was a servant, offering a glimpse of the power-sharing that God the Father exhibits towards creation. Jesus made power-sharing into something simple, something possible, something humans could do together to show compassion, care, love, and become bringer’s of the Kingdom of God on the earth. Jesus became the ultimate example, not just by sacrificing himself for humanity on the cross but also in the way in which he lived and taught, even going so far as to lower himself to washing the disciples feet, a job usually performed by the servants of the house. Paul expresses this best in Philippians 2:3-11:
Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit, but in humility consider others better than yourselves. Each of you should look not only to your own interests, but also to the interests of others. Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness. And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death— even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.(5) All things under Christ – Such scriptures as Ephesians 1:18-23; Colossians 1:15-20, 2:13-15 all speak of Christ being above all things, having power and authority over all powers, even those of life and death. This is important to remember, considering that While Jesus wielded such power, certainly equal to God, Jesus chose to use that power for good, for relationship, for community; instead of using such power for his own self-advancement (see the Temptation story in Matthew 4:1-11).
“In his Beatitudes, in his extraordinary concern for the outcast and marginalized, in his wholly unconventional treatment of women, in his love of children, in his rejection of the belief that high-ranking men are the favorites of God, in his subversive proclamation of a new order in which domination will give way to compassion and communion.”
The Holy Spirit’s Authority in Miraculous-Power
There is much emphasis today on the authority of scripture, on the authority of God and Jesus Christ; while many times leaving out the third part of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit. However, the importance of the Holy Spirit as part of the Trinity should never be diminished, nor should it ever be over-elevated; but all parts of the trinity should be seen as equal, in relationship, and in a serving-community. Before Jesus ascended into the heavens after his resurrection, he spoke to his disciples saying in Acts 1:8, “But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth." Jesus left this third part of the trinity to dwell within believers; however, this indwelling was and can never be manipulated for the will and power of anyone without the authority and authorization of God, for the spirit only does the will of the father as Jesus did the will of the Father. The Holy Spirit has a power, a protected power that expresses the light of the gospel now through the indwelling of God within the community of believers. This is seen first among those at Pentecost.
When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them. Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. When they heard this sound, a crowd came together in bewilderment, because each one heard them speaking in his own language. Utterly amazed, they asked: "Are not all these men who are speaking Galileans? Then how is it that each of us hears them in his own native language? Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome (both Jews and converts to Judaism); Cretans and Arabs-we hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!" Amazed and perplexed, they asked one another, "What does this mean?"
While the Holy Spirit does work through the believer to bear witness to the gospel in Christ Jesus, the Holy Spirit also acts as a form of guidance, as a consciousness within the believer and the larger body of Christ as a whole. Jesus states himself in John 14:25-26, "All this I have spoken while still with you. 26But the Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you.” There is a miraculous power that comes with the Holy Spirit, yet this power is also in service to God and the community, brining along the purposes of God and advancement of the Kingdom.
The Christian Expression of Power
What does all of this mean? How does the relationship of this authority of God and power-sharing of the Triune God relate to the individual and the church?
For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.
First, individual Christians must realize that there is nothing that can separate us from God, nor is there any power that can challenge God nor change God’s plans for creation. This means that Christians can stand secure in our faith, knowing that evil powers are present in our world but they will not ruin the plans of God nor will they remain forever.
“The good news is that God not only liberates us from the Powers, but liberates the Powers from their destructive behavior as well. Their evil is not intrinsic, but the result of idolatry. Therefore they can be redeemed.”
“The gospel, then, is not a message about the salvation of individuals from the world, but news about a world transfigured, right down to its basic structures.” “The debate and the problems [about power] are not concerned with the existence or even with the achievement of Power so much as with its exercise. How is the power we possess to be used?” Therefore, as Christian individuals, those inside the churches should be about promoting relationship and community over-against those aspects of life that promote suffering and oppression, wherever these evils may be found. The Christian is to live a life of service, using Christ as an example and to persuade, never forcing, others into the light of Christ and moral goodness; thereby, also exemplifying the character of God in power-sharing and free-choice.
The Churches Expression of Power
An important question for the church today in speaking of power is: Who is our God? Who is our final and ultimate authority? Many Christians would state God is our final authority, yet in America, there is a new religion of power that seems to be looming over America, this new religion is a civic religion of patriotism, nationalism, and special divine blessing that seeks to dominate and infect the American church.
The story that the rulers of domination societies told each other and their subordinates is what we today might call the myth of redemptive violence. It enshrines the belief that violence saves, that war brings peace, that might makes right…. An even more significant aspect of the myth of redemptive violence is its contribution to international conflict. In this myth, the survival and welfare of the nation becomes the highest earthly and heavenly good. Here, a Power is made absolute. There can be no other gods before the nation.
Wink links this power to the myth of redemptive violence that those who fear evil begin to trust instead of a broader, more eternal view of redemption. The church needs to be well aware of this possible destruction of both the church and the nation, the church must remember who has the final authority, who gives the power, and to respect the freedom and values of different cultures and peoples.
Conclusion
This paper has attempted to give an over-view of power and authority in the New Testament, stating that different powers for good or ill exist, but that the final authority, especially for the Christian, is found in and through the example of the Triune God. Power is a position, a placement; yet without the authority of God, that power remains in distortion and will always cause the domination and oppression of others, bringing suffering and evil in its wake. However, through the authority and purposes of God, there is hope and redemption for these powers, that these powers can and will eventually be redeemed. More specifically, the Christian and the church as a community, has a responsibility to proclaim the authority of God through power-sharing, servant-hood, and the miraculous. The goodness of the Kingdom in relationship and community is about bring transformation to its oppressive counter-powers; therefore, Christians are to be a light in the darkness of these prevailing evil, fighting with weapons of love, compassion, and the mercy of God.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Works Cited
Ehrensperger, Kathy. Paul and the Dynamics of Power: Communication and Interaction in the Early Christ-Movement. New York: T & T Clark, 2007.
Hoogland, Mark-Robin. God, Passion, and Power: Thomas Aquinas on Christ Crucified and the Almightiness of God. Leuven: Stichting Thomansfunds-Nijmegen, 2003.
McKenzie, John L. The Power and the Wisdom: An Interpretation of the New Testament. New York: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1965.
Prior, David. Jesus and Power. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 1987.
Tamez, Elsa. Struggles for Power in Early Christianity: A Study of the First Letter to Timothy. Trans. Gloria Kinsler. New York: Orbis Books, 2007.
Wink, Walter. The Powers That Be: Theology for a New Millennium. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Works Consulted
The Gospel and Authority: A P.T. Forsyth Reader. Ed. Marvin W. Anderson. Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1971.
Transforming the Powers: Peace, Justice, and the Domination System. Ed. Ray Gingerich and Ted Grimsrud. Minneapolis: fortress Press, 2006.
Hengal, Martin. Christ and Power. Trans. Everett R. Kalin. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974.
Shaw, Graham. The Cost of Authority: Manipulation and Freedom in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982.
Wink, Walter. Naming the Powers: the Language of Power in the New Testament. Vol. 1. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984.
___________. Unmasking the Powers: The Invisible Forces that Determine Human Existence. Vol. 2. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
___________. Engaging the Powers: Discernment and Resistance in a world of Domination. Vol. 3. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992.
